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Analysing Discourse – Norman Fairclough

Innhold:

Analysing Discourse NORMAN FAIRCLOUGH              2

contents              3

Acknowledgements              4

Notes:              16

Part I Social analysis, discourse analysis, text analysis              16

2 Texts, social events and social practices              16

3 Intertextuality and assumptions              30

Note              46

Part II Genres and action              47

4 Genres and generic structure              47

5 Meaning relations between sentences and clauses              63

6 Clauses Types of exchange, speech functions and grammatical mood              77

Part III Discourses and representations              88

7 Discourses              88

8 Representations of social events              96

Part IV Styles and identities              112

9 Styles              112

10 Modality and evaluation              116

Note              136

Conclusion              136

Glossaries              151

Glossary of key theorists              162

Appendix of texts              164

References              182

Index              191

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Analysing Discourse NORMAN FAIRCLOUGH

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Textual analysis for social research Norman Fairclough

Routledge

Taylor &Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 2003 by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge

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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor &Francis Group Reprinted in 2004

O 2003 Norman Fairclough

Typeset in Perpetua by

Keystroke, Jacaranda Lodge, Wolverhampton Printed and bound in Great Britain by

MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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ISBN 0—415—25892—8 (hhk) ISBN 0—415—25893—6 (pbk)

contents

Acknowledgements

1 Introduction

PART I

Social analysis, discourse analysis, text analysis

2 Texts, social events and social practices

3 Intertextuality and assumptions

PART II

Genres and action

4 Genres and generic structure

5 Meaning relations between sentences and clauses

6 Clauses: types of exchange, speech functions and grammatical mood

PART III

Discourses and representations

7 Discourses

8 Representations of social events

vi

Acknowledgements

The publishers and editors would like to thank the following people and or1 zations for permission to reproduce copyright material:

BBC Radio 4 news broadcast `Extradition of Two Libyans', 30 September 1' reprinted by permission of BBC Radio 4; M. Barratt Brown and K. Coates, The Revelation (Spokesman Books, 1996); Department for Education and Employ'''. The Learning Age (HMSO, 1998), pages 9—10; R. Iedema, `Formalizing or€ zational meaning' Discourse and Society 10(1), reprinted by permission of Publications Ltd. Copyright c0 Sage Publications Ltd, 1999; Independent Televis Channel 3, `Debate on the Future of the Monarchy', January 1997, reprinte permission of Independent Television; Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Evolve! (Har Business School Press, 2001, reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Sch( P. Muntigl, G. Weiss and R. Wodak, European Union Discourses on Un /employ (John Benjamins, 2000), page 101; R. Sennett, The Corrosion of Character (V Norton Inc., 1998); T.J. Watson, In Search of Management: Culture, Chaos and Cc in Managerial Work (Routledge, 1994); World Economic Forum Annual Mee `Globalization', January 2002, Davos, Switzerland.

While every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of material us( this volume, the publishers would be happy to hear from any we have been ur to contact, and we will make the necessary amendment at the earliest opportu

I am grateful to MA and Research students at Lancaster University and to mere of the Language, Ideology and Power Research Group for responses to comments on early versions of parts of the book. I am also grateful to Jim Annette Hastings and Bob Jessop for valuable comments on a draft of the IN manuscript which have been helpful in making revisions.

I want to thank Matthew and Simon for their long-suffering fortitude in the of another of Daddy's interminable books. And Isabela, for meaning.

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a framework for linguistic analysis in the existing literature which indicates how that framework might fruitfully be used to address a range of issues in social research. That is my aim in this book.

I envisage the book being used in a variety of ways. It is suitable for use as a coursebook for second or third year undergraduates, MA students and research students both in courses in research methods in social science departments, and in courses in analysis of language use in language departments. But it could also be used outside the context of a course by research students and academics in social science and humanities who are looking for a socially-oriented introduction to analysis of spoken and written language.

Given that readers are likely to vary considerably in their familiarity with the concepts and categories I draw from social research and discourse and text analysis, I have included glossaries of key terms and key people (pages 212-228), and references for them which in some cases extend the sources I have referred to in the main text of the book. Terms included in the glossaries are printed in bold at the point where they are first used.

Social analysis, discourse analysis, text analysis

I see this book as extending the work I have previously published in the area of discourse analysis in the direction of more detailed linguistic analysis of texts (Chouliaraki and Fairclough 1999, Fairclough 2001b, 1992, 1995a, 2000a). My approach to discourse analysis (a version of `critical discourse analysis') is based upon the assumption that language is an irreducible part of social life, dialectically interconnected with other elements of social life, so that social analysis and research always has to take account of language. ('Dialectical' relations will be explained in chapter 2.) This means that one productive way of doing social research is through a focus on language, using some form of discourse analysis. This is not a matter of reducing social life to language, saying that everything is discourse — it isn't. Rather, it's one analytical strategy amongst many, and it often makes sense to use discourse analysis in conjunction with other forms of analysis, for instance ethnography or forms of institutional analysis.

There are many versions of discourse analysis (Van Dijk 1997). One major division is between approaches which include detailed analysis of texts (see below for the sense in which I am using this term), and approaches which don't. I have used the term `textually oriented discourse analysis' to distinguish the former from the latter (Fairclough 1992). Discourse analysis in social sciences is often strongly influenced by the work of Foucault (Foucault 1972, Fairclough 1992). Social scientists working in this tradition generally pay little close attention to the linguistic features of texts. My own approach to discourse analysis has been to try to transcend the division between work inspired by social theory which tends not to analyse

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texts, and work which focuses upon the language of texts but tends not to engage with social theoretical issues. This is not, or should not be, an `either/or'. On the one hand, any analysis of texts which aims to be significant in social scientific terms has to connect with theoretical questions about discourse (e.g. the socially `constructive' effects of discourse). On the other hand, no real understanding of the social effects of discourse is possible without looking closely at what happens when people talk or write.

So, text analysis is an essential part of discourse analysis, but discourse analysis is not merely the linguistic analysis of texts. I see discourse analysis as `oscillating' between a focus on specific texts and a focus on what I call the `order of discourse', the relatively durable social structuring of language which is itself one element of the relatively durable structuring and networking of social practices. Critical discourse analysis is concerned with continuity and change at this more abstract, more structural, level, as well as with what happens in particular texts. The link between these two concerns is made through the way in which texts are analysed in critical discourse analysis. Text analysis is seen as not only linguistic analysis; it also includes what I have called `interdiscursive analysis', that is, seeing texts in terms of the different discourses, genres and styles they draw upon and articulate together. I shall explain this more fully in chapter 2 (see Fairclough 2000a).

My focus in this book, however, is on the linguistic analysis of texts. But what I want to make clear is that this is not just another book on linguistic analysis of texts, it is part of a broader project of developing critical discourse analysis as a resource for social analysis and research. The book can be used without reference to that broader project, but I would like readers to be aware of it even if they do not subscribe to it. I include a brief `manifesto' for the broader project at the end of the Conclusion. Some readers may wish to read this broader framing of the book (pages 202—11) at this point.

Terminology: text, discourse, language

I shall use the term text in a very broad sense. Written and printed texts such as shopping lists and newspaper articles are 'texts', but so also are transcripts of (spoken) conversations and interviews, as well as television programmes and web-pages. We might say that any actual instance of language in use is a `text' — though even that is too limited, because texts such as television programmes involve not only language but also visual images and sound effects. The term `language' will be used in its most usual sense to mean verbal language — words, sentences, etc. We can talk of `language' in a general way, or of particular languages such as English or Swahili. The term discourse (in what is widely called `discourse analysis') signals the particular view of language in use I have referred to above — as an element of social life which is closely interconnected with other elements. But, again, the term

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can be used in a particular as well as a general, abstract way — so I shall refer to particular `discourses' such as the `Third Way' political discourse of New Labour (Fairclough 2000b).

Language in new capitalism

The examples I use throughout the book to illustrate the approach will be particularly focused upon contemporary social change, and especially changes in contemporary capitalism and their impact on many areas of social life. The set of changes I am referring to are variously identified as 'globalization', post- or late-'modernity', `information society' , `knowledge economy' , `new capitalism' , `consumer culture' , and so forth (Held et al. 1999). I shall use the term ...