Chapter 01.pdf

chapter

Introduction to Psychology

and Research Methods

THEME:

Psychology is science and

a profession. Scienti c

observation is the most

powerful way to answer

questions about behavior.

Key Questions

What is psychology? What are its goals?

What other research methods do psy-

chologists use?

How did psychology emerge as a eld of

knowledge?

How does psychology differ from false

explanations of behavior?

What are the major trends and special-

ties in psychology?

How dependable is psychological infor-

mation in the popular media?

How do psychologists collect informa-

tion?

How is an experiment performed?

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CHAPTER 1

Preview

Why Study Psychology?

topics. Psychology is an ever-changing panorama of people

and ideas. You really can’t call yourself educated without

knowing something about it. And, although we might

envy those who have walked on the moon or explored

the ocean’s depths, the ultimate frontier still lies close to

home. Psychology can help you better understand yourself

and others. This book is a guided tour of human behavior.

We hope you enjoy the adventure. What, really, could be

more fascinating than a journey of self-discovery?

You are a universe, a collection of worlds within worlds.

Your brain is possibly the most complicated device in

existence. Through its action you are capable of art, music,

science, war, philosophy, love, hatred, and charity. You

are the most challenging riddle ever written, a mystery

at times even to yourself. Your thoughts, emotions, and

actions—your behavior and conscious experience—are

the subject of this book.

Look around you: Newspapers, radio, magazines,

television, and the Internet are brimming with psychological

Psychology—Spotlight on Behavior

how knowledge is created. Whether they work in a lab, a class-

room, or a clinic, all psychologists rely on information from sci-

enti c research.

Psychology touches us in many ways. Psychology is about mem-

ory, stress, therapy, love, persuasion, hypnosis, perception, death,

conformity, creativity, learning, personality, aging, intelligence,

sexuality, emotion, happiness, and much more. Psychologists use

scienti c investigation to study, describe, understand, predict,

and control human behavior.

Psychology is both a science and a profession. Some psycholo-

gists are scientists who do research to create new knowledge. Oth-

ers are teachers who pass knowledge on to students. Still others

apply psychology to solve problems in mental health, education,

business, sports, law, and medicine (Halpern, 2003). Later we will

return to the profession of psychology. For now, let’s focus on

What Is Psychology?

The word psychology comes from the roots psyche, which means

“mind,” and logos, meaning “knowledge or study.” However,

when did you last see or touch a “mind”? Because the mind can’t

be studied directly, psychology is now de ned as the scienti c

study of behavior and mental processes.

What does behavior refer to in the de nition of psychology? Any-

thing you do—eating, sleeping, talking, or sneezing—is a behav-

ior. So are dreaming, gambling, watching television, learning

Spanish, basket weaving, and reading this book. Naturally, we are

interested in overt behaviors (observable actions and responses).

But psychologists also study covert behaviors. These are hidden, in-

ternal events, such as thinking and remembering (Leary, 2004).

Seeking Empirical Evidence

At various times in the last 100 years, experts have stated that

“Heavier-than-air ying machines are impossible,” “Radio has no

future,” “X-rays are a hoax,” and “Computers will never serve any

practical purpose.” Obviously, all of these ideas proved to be

wrong.

Self-appointed “authorities” are also often wrong about hu-

man behavior. Because of this, psychologists have a special re-

spect for empirical evidence (information gained from direct obser-

vation). We study behavior directly and collect data (observed

facts) so that we can draw valid conclusions (Martin, 2004).

Would you say it’s true, for instance, that “You can’t teach an old

dog new tricks”? Why argue about it? As psychologists, we would

simply get ten “new” dogs, ten “used” dogs, and ten “old” dogs

and then try to teach them all a new trick to nd out!

Psychologists are highly trained professionals. In addition to the psychologi-

cal knowledge they possess, psychologists learn specialized skills in counsel-

ing and therapy, measurement and testing, research and experimentation,

statistics, diagnosis, treatment, and many other areas.

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Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods

CRITICAL THINKING

Testing Common-Sense Beliefs

It may seem that psychological research con rms what we already

know from everyday experience. Why waste time and money

con rming the obvious? Actually, common-sense beliefs are often

wrong. See if you can tell which of the following common-sense

beliefs are true and which are false (Landau & Bavaria, 2003).

The basis of the baby’s love for his mother is the fact that his

mother lls his physiological need for food. True or False?

Most humans use only 10 percent of their potential brain

power. True or False?

Blind people have unusually sensitive organs of touch. True or

False?

The more motivated you are, the better you will do at solving

a complex problem. True or False?

The weight of evidence suggests that the major factor in

forgetting is the decay of memory traces with time. True or

False?

Psychotherapy has its greatest success in the treatment of

psychotic patients who have lost touch with reality. True or

False?

Personality tests reveal one’s basic motives, including those

you may not be aware of. True or False?

To change people’s behavior toward members of ethnic minor-

ity groups, we must rst change their attitudes. True or False?

“The study of the mind” is the best brief de nition of psychol-

ogy today. True or False?

Boys and girls exhibit no behavioral differences until environ-

mental in uences begin to produce such differences. True or

False?

It turns out that research has shown that all of these common-

sense beliefs are false. Yet in a survey, all of the beliefs were ac-

cepted as true by a large number of college students (Landau &

Bavaria, 2003). How did you do?

We can all bene t from being more re ective in evaluating

common-sense beliefs. When you nd yourself wondering about

the truth of a particular belief, apply your critical thinking skills by

asking whether the belief makes logical sense. Can it be explained

by any of the concepts in this book? Can you imagine what sort

of research might yield empirical evidence to get you closer to the

truth? Critical Thinking boxes like this one will appear throughout

this book to help you be more re ective and think critically about

human behavior.

Basically, the empirical approach says, “Let’s take a look”

(Stanovich, 2004). Have you ever wondered if drivers become

more hostile when it’s blazing hot outside? Douglas Kenrick and

Steven MacFarlane (1986) decided to nd out. They parked a car

at a green light in a one-lane intersection in Phoenix, Arizona, in

temperatures ranging from 88°F to 116°F. Then they recorded the

number of times other frazzled drivers (in cars without air-

conditioning) honked at the stalled car and how long they

honked. The results are shown in ● Figure 1.1. Notice that when

it was very hot, drivers spent more time leaning on the horn

(which may be why cars have horns instead of cannons).

Isn’t the outcome of this study fairly predictable? In this instance,

you may have guessed how drivers would react. You might even

see this research as doing little more than con rming common-

sense beliefs. However, the results of many studies are surprising

or unexpected. Take a moment and read “Testing Common-Sense

Beliefs” for more information. Even in the case of this research,

it’s possible that drivers become lethargic in hot weather, not

more aggressive. Thus, the study tells us something interesting

about frustration, discomfort, and aggression.

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

86–90

91–95

96–100 101–105 106–110 111–115

Temperature-humidity discomfort index

● Figure 1.1 Results of an empirical study. The graph shows that horn honking

by frustrated motorists becomes more likely as air temperature increases. This sug-

gests that physical discomfort is associated with interpersonal hostility. Riots and

assaults also increase during hot weather. Here we see a steady rise in aggression

as temperatures go higher. However, research done by other psychologists has

shown that hostile actions that require physical exertion, such as st ghts, may

become less likely at very high temperatures. (Data from Kenrick & MacFarlane, 1986.)

Psychological Research

Many elds, such as history, law, art, and business, are interested in hu-

man behavior. How is psychology different? Psychology’s great

strength is that it uses scienti c observation to answer questions

Psychology The scienti c study of behavior and mental

processes.

Scienti c observation An empirical investigation that is

structured so that it answers questions about the world.

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CHAPTER 1

about behavior (Stanovich, 2004). For instance, some parents be-

lieve that the music of Mozart increases babies’ intelligence. Is this

true? Many popular magazines and books say yes. Scienti c test-

ing says no.

Of course, some topics can’t be studied because of ethical or

practical concerns. More often, questions go unanswered for lack

of a suitable research method (a systematic process for answering

scienti c questions). In the past, for example, we had to take the

word of people who say they never dream. Then the EEG (electro-

encephalograph, or brain-wave machine) was invented. Certain

EEG patterns, and the presence of eye movements, can reveal that

a person is dreaming. People who “never dream,” it turns out,

dream frequently. If they are awakened during a dream they viv-

idly remember it. Thus, the EEG helped make the study of dream-

ing more scienti c.

for alternate conclusions. For example, with regard to spanking, a

critical thinker would ask, “Does punishment work? If so, when?

Under what conditions does it not work? What are its drawbacks?

Are there better ways to guide learning?” (Halpern, 2000).

Thinking About Behavior

The core of critical thinking is a willingness to actively evaluate

ideas. True knowledge comes from constantly revising and im-

proving our understanding of the world. As Susan Blackmore

(2001) said when her studies caused her to abandon some long-

held beliefs, “Admitting you are wrong is always hard—even

though it’s a skill that every psychologist has to learn.”

Critical thinking is built on four basic principles (Gill, 1991;

Shore, 1990):

1. Few “truths” transcend the need for empirical testing. It is true

that religious beliefs and personal values may be held with-

out supporting evidence, but most other ideas can be evalu-

ated by applying the rules of logic and evidence.

2. Judging the quality of evidence is crucial. Imagine that you are a ju-

ror in a courtroom, judging claims made by two battling lawyers.

To decide correctly, you can’t just weigh the amount of evidence.

You must also critically evaluate the quality of the evidence. Then

you can give greater weight to the most credible facts.

3. Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make an

idea true. Just because a teacher, guru, celebrity, or author-

ity is convinced or sincere doesn’t mean you should auto-

matically believe him or her. Always ask, “What evidence

convinced her or him? How good is it? Is there a better

explanation?”

4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. Be prepared to consider

daring departures and go wherever the evidence leads. How-

ever, don’t become so “open-minded” that you are simply

gullible. Critical thinkers strike a balance between open-

mindedness and healthy skepticism. They are ready to change

their views when new evidence arises (Bartz, 2002).

Science and Critical Thinking

Because we all deal with human behavior every day, we tend to think

that we already know what is true in psychology. For example, many

people believe that punishment (a spanking) is a good way to rein-

force learning in children. However, scienti c studies have shown

that spanking is a poor way to discipline young children. Such stud-

ies illustrate why critical thinking is important in psychology. Criti-

cal thinking is the ability to evaluate, compare, analyze, critique,

and synthesize information. Critical thinkers analyze the evidence

supporting their beliefs, they question assumptions, and they look

Research Specialties

What kinds of topics do psychologists study? Here’s a sample of what

various psychologists might say about their work:

“In general, developmental psychologists study the course of human

growth and development, from conception until death. I’m especially

interested in how young children develop the ability to think, speak,

perceive, and act.”

“I’m also interested in how people get to be the way they are. Like

other learning theorists, I study how and why learning occurs in hu-

mans and animals. Right now I’m investigating how patterns of re-

ward affect learning.”

“I’m a personality theorist. I study personality traits, motivation,

and individual differences. I am especially interested in the personality

pro les of highly creative college students.”

“As a sensation and perception psychologist, I investigate how we

discern the world through our senses. I am studying how we recog-

nize familiar faces.”

The scienti c study of dreaming was made possible by use of the EEG, a

device that records the tiny electrical signals generated by the brain as a

person sleeps. The EEG converts these electrical signals into a written record

of brain activity. Certain shifts in brain activity, coupled with the presence of

rapid eye movements, are strongly related to dreaming. (See Chapter 7 for

more information.)

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Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods

The variety and complexity of human

behavior make psychological investi-

gation challenging. How would you

explain the behaviors shown here?

“ Comparative psychologists study and compare the behavior of dif-

ferent species, especially animals. Personally, I’m fascinated by the

communication abilities of porpoises.”

“ Biopsychologists are interested in how behavior relates to biologi-

cal processes, especially activities in the nervous system. I’ve been do-

ing some exciting research on how the brain controls hunger.”

“ Cognitive psychologists are primarily interested in thinking. I want

to know how reasoning, problem solving, memory, and other mental

processes relate to human behavior.”

“ Gender psychologists study differences between females and

males. I want to understand how gender differences are in uenced by

biology, child rearing, education, and stereotypes.”

“ Social psychologists explore human social behavior, such as atti-

tudes, persuasion, riots, conformity, leadership, racism, and friend-

ship. My own interest is interpersonal attraction. I analyze how friend-

ships develop.”

“ Cultural psychologists study the ways in which culture affects hu-

man behavior. The language you speak, the foods you eat, how your

parents disciplined you, what laws you obey, who you regard as ‘fam-

ily,’ whether you eat with a spoon or your ngers—these and count-

less other details of behavior are strongly in uenced by culture.”

“ Evolutionary psychologists are interested in how our behavior is

guided by patterns that evolved during the long history of humankind. I

am studying some interesting trends in male and female mating choices

that don’t seem to be merely learned or based on culture.”

This small sample should give you an idea of the diversity of

psychological research. It also hints at some of the kinds of infor-

mation we will explore in this book.

Animals and Psychology

Research involving animals was mentioned in some of the preceding

examples. Why is that? You may be surprised to learn that psychol-

ogists are interested in the behavior of any living creature—from

atworms to humans. Indeed, some comparative psychologists

Research method A systematic approach to answering

scienti c questions.

Critical thinking An ability to evaluate, compare, analyze,

critique, and synthesize information.

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